结构化阅读法在GRE和GMAT考试中对于涉及文章中某些句子的具体信息理解的细节题的解决有着神奇的效果......
在GRE和GMAT考试中对于涉及文章中某些句子的具体信息理解的细节题的解决,结构化阅读法又能起到怎样的作用呢?
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题型思路:
GRE和GMAT考试中的细节题,和TOEFL考试以及IELTS考试中的细节题有一些相似的地方:它们都是在考察考生对于细节信息定位的能力,对于原文、题目要求和选项的理解能力,以及对于一些同义替换的理解和把握能力。但是它们也有很大的不同:TOEFL考试中的细节题是几乎严格按照文章顺序给出的;IELTS考试中的细节题,除了配对题以外的其他题型,包括是非无判断题、摘要填空题、单选题、标签题等等都是在题型的内部具有顺序性的,可以在文章中按照顺序来依次定位。而GRE和GMAT考试中,所有的题目都是没有顺序性的,可以说是乱序出现的。这一特点给许多考生对题目相关的细节信息的定位寻找带来了不小的障碍。
下面笔者将要探讨的,就是关于结构化阅读法在解决GRE和GMAT细节题的时候可以起到的重要作用。
做法解析:
先让我们一起来看一篇文章:
A recent study has provided cluestopredator-prey dynamics in the late Pleistoceneera. Researchers compared thenumber of toothfractures in present-day carnivores with toothfractures incarnivores that lived 36,000 to 10,000years ago and that were preserved in theRanchoLa Brea tar pits in Los Angeles. The breakagefrequencies in the extinctspecies were strikinglyhigher than those in the present-day species.
In considering possibleexplanations for thisfinding, the researchers dismissed demographic biasbecauseolder individuals were not overrepresentedin the fossil samples. They rejectedpreservationalbias because a total absence of breakage in twoextinct speciesdemonstrated that the fractureswere not the result of abrasion within thepits.They ruled out local bias because breakage dataobtained from otherPleistocene sites were similarto the La Brea data. The explanation theyconsidermost plausible is behavioral differences betweenextinct and present-daycarnivores—in particular,more contact between the teeth of predators andthebones of prey due to more thoroughconsumption of carcasses by the extinctspecies.Such thorough carcass consumption implies tothe researchers either thatprey availability waslow, at least seasonally, or that there wasintensecompetition over kills and a high rate of carcasstheft due to relativelyhigh predator densities.
(TheOfficialGuideforGMAT 12thEdition Page 360)
在课堂上,笔者常常会让学生先尝试使用自然阅读法,在30秒钟内从头开始阅读文章,看看到30秒结束的时候学生们能够读到文章的什么位置。所谓的自然阅读法,是指按照文章由词汇组成句子、由句子构成段落、最后再由段落汇聚成篇章的作者的写作顺序,一个词一个词的读懂所看的句子,从而达到全面理解的目的的阅读方法。在我们阅读小说、散文、感兴趣的新闻报道等文字的时候,通常会采用这种阅读方法。
然而,自然阅读法是不能够适用于GRE和GMAT考试的阅读题的解决的。可以说,自然阅读法对于几乎所有出国考试的阅读部分的解决都是不适用的。其原因有二:第一,考试时间有限,想要在规定的时间内能够以读懂文章为目的顺序看完文章,并且还要完成相关的题目,如果没有超凡的词汇量和理解能力,以及超快的阅读速度,几乎可以说是不可能完成的事情;第二,阅读题目并不会跟全文的内容全部相关,而只是会与文中的若干句子或者段落有关联,因此通读全文往往是没有必要并且十分浪费时间的。
所以笔者的大部分学生,在使用自然阅读法阅读上面的文章时,在30秒钟内只能完整读完第一段,第二段中在说些什么绝大部分学生在30秒内是无法得知的。
如果换成用结构化阅读法来读这篇文章会有怎样的效果呢?
我们如果抓住跟文章结构相关的词汇和句子的片段,对于第一段,就只需要掌握如下信息即可:” Arecent study has provided cluestopredator-preydynamics …. Researchers compared the numberof toothfractures in present-day … with … 36,000 to 10,000years ago …. Thebreakagefrequenciesin the extinct specieswere…higher than ….”这其中,标为红色字体的是重点需要抓住的核心词,标为蓝色字体的是可以抓住也可以不用抓住的信息,其余的都可以不用看。我们可以发现第一段被简化成了原先的一半不到,我们只需要知道这样几点,就可以理解第一段的大概内容:第一句话中提到了一个近期的研究为某件事(捕食动物和猎物之间的关系)提供了线索;第二句话具体在说的是研究的内容(比较了现在和过去的牙齿骨折);第三句话中揭示了研究的发现(过去的骨折频率高于现在的)。把握这些信息,基本上只需要10~15秒钟即可。
这样,在30秒钟之内,我们就还可以为自己争取到15~20秒钟时间来看第二段的内容。虽然第二段的文字很多,我们同样可以抓住段落中跟文章结构相关的词汇和句子片段。所以第二段能够被简化成下面这样:”Inconsidering possible explanations for thisfinding, the researchers dismissed …. They rejected….They ruled out …. The explanation theyconsidermost plausible is ….”这样就非常清楚了:第二段第一句是在探讨对于第一段里的研究发现的解释,并说研究人员不考虑某种解释;第二句说他们拒绝了某种解释;第三句说他们排除了某种解释;第四句才说到他们认为最合理的解释是什么。了解这些内容,也只需要花费15秒钟左右的时间。
下面让我们来看一些跟这篇文章有关的细节题:
According to the passage, compared withPleistocenecarnivores in other areas,Pleistocene carnivores inthe La Brea area
(A) included the same species,in approximately thesame proportions
(B) hada similar frequency of toothfractures
(C) populated the La Brea areamore densely
(D) consumed their prey morethoroughly
(E) found it harder to obtainsufficient prey
先来分析题干:我们会发现题干中有一个很明显的词:compare。在刚才用结构化阅读法方法理解文章第一段的时候,我们就已经发现了compare一词的踪迹。那么这道题目所问的信息是不是在第一段中出现的呢?
再进一步分析题干就可以看出,题目中所问的,是不同地区的比较,而文章第一段中所说到的比较,正如我们之前了解到的,是把现在的和过去的物种来比较,因此题目和第一段的比较内容不符,就只有可能在第二段中出现。这样,定位的大范围就可以初步限定下来了。
而需要在这个大范围当中找到这道题目具体出现的位置,就需要利用题干中的定位词了。幸运的是,本题的定位词十分明显,就是Pleistocene和La Brea area两个首字母大写的信息。使用在TOEFL和IELTS考试中通用的定位方法Scanning(扫读),我们很快可以从第二段中找到这样一句话:”They ruled out local bias because breakage dataobtained from otherPleistocene siteswere similarto the La Brea data.”
句子中标为红色字体的信息即为解题的关键,所以我们可以从选项中快速找到B选项”had a similar frequency of tooth fractures”。
下面一道题目同样是细节题:
According to the passage, the researchers believe thatthe high frequency of tooth breakage incarnivoresfound at La Breawas caused primarilyby
(A) the aging process inindividual carnivores
(B) contact between the fossilsin the pits
(C) poor preservation of thefossils after they wereremoved from the pits
(D) theimpact of carnivores’ teeth against thebones oftheir prey
(E) the impact of carnivores’teeth against thebones of other carnivores during fights over kills
在分析题干的时候我们不难发现,题干中所问的是研究人员们相信在La Brea发现的古代食肉动物的高的牙齿断裂频率是由什么导致的,也就是问研究人员们所赞同的对于这个研究发现的解释是什么。定位范围可以很快找到,应该是在第二段的第四句之后提到的信息。所以在文章中我们通过理解下面这句话,就可以找到答案:”Theexplanation they considermost plausible is behavioral differencesbetweenextinct and present-day carnivores—in particular,more contactbetween the teeth of predators andthe bones of prey due to morethoroughconsumption of carcasses by the extinct species.”
从选项中,我们很容易就可以找到D选项”the impact of carnivores’ teeth againstthebones of their prey”是与原文意思相同的内容。
例题分析
通过上文的例子,我们会发现对于文章结构的了解和把握不仅仅适用于解决核心类的题型,对于细节题的解决也是很有帮助的,主要体现在帮助考生快速定位题目有可能出现的位置方面。对于出题不按顺序进行的GRE和GMAT阅读考试来说,能够快速找到题目出处是可以大大节省时间并且提高解题正确率的不二法门。下面,笔者就再分别用一篇GMAT和一篇GRE阅读文章中的细节题来进一步验证这个方法的有效性。
下面先来看一篇GMAT阅读文章:
Biologists have advanced two theories to explainwhyschoolingof fish occurs in so many fish species.Because schooling isparticularly widespread amongspecies of small fish, both theories assumethatschooling offers the advantage of some protectionfrom predators.
Proponentsof theory A dispute the assumption thata school ofthousands of fish is highly visible.Experiments have shown that any fish can beseen,even in very clear water, only within a sphere of 200meters in diameter.When fish are in a compact group,the spheres of visibility overlap. Thus thechance of apredator finding the school is only slightly greaterthan the chanceof the predator finding a single fishswimming alone. Schooling is advantageousto theindividual fish because a predator's chance of findingany particular fishswimming in the school is muchsmaller than its chance of finding at least oneof thesame group of fish if the fish were dispersedthroughout an area.
However,critics of theory Apoint out that somefish formschools even in areas where predators areabundant and thus little possibilityof escapingdetection exists. They argue that the school continuesto be of valueto its members even after detection.They advocate theory B, the "confusion effect,"whichcan be explained in two different ways.
Sometimes,proponents argue, predators simplycannot decidewhich fish to attack. This indecisionsupposedly results from a predator'spreference forstriking prey that is distinct from the rest of theschool in appearance.In many schools the fish arealmost identical in appearance, making itdifficultfor apredator to select one. The second explanation forthe "confusioneffect" has to do with the sensoryconfusion caused by a large number ofprey movingaround the predator. Even if the predatormakes the decision toattack a particular fish,the movement of other prey in the school canbedistracting. The predator's difficulty can becompared to that of a tennisplayer trying tohit a tennis ball when two are approachingsimultaneously.
(TheOfficialGuideforGMAT 13th Edition Page 364)
在这篇GMAT的文章中,我们可以通过把握笔者标为红色的这些结构套路词来把握文章的结构。按照我们所找到的这些套路词,如第一段中的”…twotheories to explainwhy…”(两个理论被提出以解释为什么……);第二段开头的”Proponentsof theory A…”(A理论的支持者们……);第三段开头的”However,critics of theory Apoint out that…”(但是,A理论的批评者指出……)和结尾处的”Theyadvocate theory B,…”(他们支持B理论)等信息,我们可以把这篇文章归于现象解释型的文章。开篇描述现象,后文分别给出不相同或者有对立面的两种解释是这类文章的一般特点。
结合对于文章的了解,下面我们看看后面的细节题题干,通过文章套路来判断一下题目的定位范围:”1. According to the passage, theory B states that whichof the following is afactor that enables a schoolingfish to escape predators?”这个题干中出现的B理论是一个非常明显的提示,告诉我们题目所问的内容是和文章中说到的第二个理论有关。在文章的第三段结尾处我们看到过B理论的被提出,但是第三段中并没有具体展开对B理论进行说明。所以这道题目的定位点应该在文章的第四个段落中出现。
“2. According to the passage, both theory Aand theory Bhave been developed to explain how”本题题干中讲到A理论和B理论都是用来解释的对象,很明显就是在问文章所要解释的现象本身。定位点会在文章的开篇亦即第一段。
“3. According to one explanation of the "confusioneffect,"a fish that swims in a school will have greateradvantages for survival if it”这道题目的题干中虽然没有非常明显的定位词,但是提到了对confusion effect的一个解释,我们在分析文章结构的时候在第三段的末尾看到过confusion effect一词,也就是B理论的另外一种说法。所以本题的定位点仍然是在第四个段落中出现。
定位方向确定了,再加上积累到足够的词汇量以及具备一定的难句理解能力了,细节题的解决自然迎刃而解。
最后,我们再来看一篇GRE阅读文章中细节题的例子:
Immediately relevant to game theory are the sexratios incertain parasitic wasp species that have alarge excess of females. In thesespecies, fertilized eggsdevelop into females and unfertilized eggs into males.Afemale stores sperm and can determine the sex ofeach egg she lays byfertilizing it or leaving it unfertilized. By Fisher‘s genetic argument that the sexratio will be favored which maximizes the number of descendants an individualwill have and hence thenumber of gene copies transmitted, it should pay afemaleto produce equal numbers of sons and daughters. Hamilton, noting that the eggsdevelop within their host—the larva of another insect—and that the newlyemerged adult wasps mate immediately and disperse,offered a remarkably cogentanalysis. Since only one female usually lays eggs in a given larva, it wouldpay her to produce one male only, because this one male could fertilize all hissisters on emergence. Like Fisher, Hamiltonlookedfor an evolutionarily stable strategy,but he went a step further inrecognizing that he was looking for a strategy.
(新GRE阅读理解36套 2012年版Exercise 1 Passage 1)
The author suggests that the work of Fisher andHamiltonwas similar in that both scientists
(A) conductedtheir research at approximatelythe same time
(B)soughtto manipulate the sex ratios of someof the animals they studied
(C)soughtan explanation of why certain sexratios exist and remain stable
(D) studied game theory, thereby providing importantgroundwork forthe later development of strategy theory
(E) studied reproduction in the same animal species
在解决上面这道细节题的时候,我们可以首先分析文章的结构套路。通过文章第一句话中讲到的”Immediately relevant to game theory are the sexratios incertain parasitic wasp species that have alarge excess of females”(和博弈论直接相关的是在某种有着大量过剩的雌蜂的寄生蜂的种群的性别比例)很明显是在尝试用博弈论来解释雌蜂过剩的这种现象,后文中分别提到了Fisher的遗传学理论和Hamilton的观点。所以我们可以说这篇文章也是一篇现象解释型的文章。
接下来对题干的分析显示出,题目所问的是作者认为Fisher和Hamilton的工作的相似之处在于什么。根据一般文章展开的正常逻辑思路来考虑,既然问两者工作的相似之处,至少这两个理论的提出者应该先出现过,才会讲到其相似之处。所以我们可以推测出,相似之处的提出,应该是位于两个理论都出现过之后,也就是在文章的结尾位置会提到。文章最后一句开头的”LikeFisher, Hamilton …”这一说法也印证了这种推断。但是最后一句的后面半句,由于用到了转折关联词but,所以跟前半句讲到的相似之处已经无关。通过原文中所说的”lookedfor an evolutionarily stable strategy”就可以从选项中找到意思相同的C选项了。
通过对上面几篇例文的分析,我们可以发现,结构化阅读法这种阅读思路不仅仅适用于解决GRE和GMAT阅读文章中的主题结构类题型。在解决细节题的时候,如果能够善用结构化阅读法,也能够起到如虎添翼的效果。
宁波新通外语学校学术总监新加坡国立大学博士,美国特拉华大学博士后。曾获得得美国研究生入学考试GRE 2320分(2400满分),老托福630分(677满分)的高分,并在雅思考试中取得阅读8.5分、听力8.5分。擅长帮助学生全面规划留学考试以及相关留学事宜。教学方面能够胜任托福、雅思、SAT、GRE、GMAT等多项考试,高分学员遍及全球。
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